Investigation of chromium levels in raw cow's milk and dairy products from Djelfa city (Algeria) and estimation of potential health risks.

The Djelfa region (Algeria), home to a chromium-processing tannery, lacks data on chromium (Cr) levels in locally produced milk and dairy products. This study determined total Cr concentrations in raw cow's milk and traditional dairy products, estimated dietary exposure, and assessed health risks for children and adults. 90 samples-raw milk (n = 30, farm and retail) and dairy products (curd, buttermilk, ricotta cheese, butter; n = 15 each)-were collected between March and June 2023. Health risks were evaluated using the Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ), and Target Cancer Risk (TCR). Total Cr was detected in all samples at elevated concentrations (3.22 ± 0.04 to 3.37 ± 0.05 mg/kg), with a significant matrix effect (p < 0.001; ω2 = 0.31). Ricotta cheese showed significantly higher levels (p < 0.05), while farm vs. vendor milk did not differ (p = 0.998). THQ values remained below 1 for both age groups. All TCR values exceeded the US EPA threshold (1 × 10-4); however, as total Cr was measured rather than Cr(VI), these are conservative upper-bound estimates. The findings highlight a widespread Cr contamination across the local dairy chain, calling for systematic monitoring and Cr speciation studies.