Exposure and risk assessment in the nanotechnology industry: health and environmental challenges from nanomaterial properties

Nanomaterials (NMs) are increasingly used in medicine, electronics, energy, agriculture, and advanced materials due to their distinctive size- and surface-dependent properties. However, these properties may also pose potential hazards to workers, consumers, and environmental receptors. In this review, we analyze how the physicochemical properties of NMs influence exposure, environmental fate, hazard manifestation, and risk characterization across occupational and environmental settings. We focus primarily on engineered NMs utilized in the nanotechnology industry, while also discussing selected incidental ultrafine particles and related nanoscale materials where they help elucidate shared exposure pathways, analytical challenges, and risk assessment frameworks. We further summarize recent advancements in exposure monitoring, toxicological testing, predictive modeling, and regulatory governance, and explore practical strategies for risk management and safe and sustainable design. This review aims to provide an integrated framework for balancing technological innovation with the protection of human health and the environment.