Can Europe ACE the Next War? Lessons from War in Ukraine for European Air Forces

The war in Ukraine has served as a catalyst for rethinking air power application in a high-intensity, contested environment. Especially the Ukrainian air campaign, characterized by the extensive use of dispersal, manoeuvre, decentralized command and control, and integrated air defence, allows for an exploration of the Agile Combat Employment (ACE) concept and its applicability for European air forces. This article examines how lessons from Ukraine inform European approaches to ACE, drawing on both historical context and post‑2022 European responses. It argues that while the Ukrainian experience validates the principles of ACE, it also highlights the organizational, logistical, and manpower-related challenges associated with sustained dispersed operations that will most likely affect the implementation of the concept among European air forces.