Digital inequalities after Covid-19: A longitudinal analysis of internet attitude, device diversity, internet skills, and internet activities among the Dutch adult population 2020-2023

Abstract The 2020 lockdowns increased internet use, raising questions about how digital inequalities have evolved. In this study we examined changes in internet access between 2020 (during lockdowns) and 2023 (post-pandemic), focusing on shifts across sociodemographic variables (gender and age) as well as personal (health), economic (employment and income), social (offline social support and internet support quality), and cultural (education) capitals. Analyzing longitudinal data from Dutch adults surveyed in 2020 and 2023, our findings show that inequalities in internet attitudes, device diversity, internet skills, and engagement in online economic, social, cultural and personal activities persisted. However, interaction effects revealed changing patterns over time.