Household access to water, sanitation, and hygiene services in Cross River State, Nigeria: patterns, challenges, and community participation

Access to safe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH) services is essential for public health and sustainable development. In Cross River State, Nigeria, households continue to face challenges in accessing reliable and safely managed WaSH services. This study examined household WaSH access in Calabar Municipality, Ikom, and Ogoja, focusing on access patterns, service-related challenges, and community participation in WaSH governance. A cross-sectional household survey collected quantitative data on water sources and collection practices, storage, treatment, sanitation facilities, hygiene behaviours, and community involvement. Findings show that boreholes are the dominant water source; however, limited reliability compels households to make multiple daily trips, increasing time and labour burdens. Although most households use improved sanitation facilities, concerns remain regarding maintenance, safety for children/vulnerable groups, and wastewater disposal. Hygiene practices, including handwashing and water treatment, are constrained by material availability, perceived risks, and inconsistent service provision. Community participation is extensive through sanitation activities, maintenance, and peer education; yet, it often substitutes for limited government support rather than complementing it. Guided by multidimensional access, collective action, and political ecology frameworks, the study highlights the interaction between infrastructure, household behaviour, and governance, underscoring the need for integrated interventions aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 6/related equity-focused goals.