Bluetooth low energy thermohygrometric sensor for continuous respiratory rate monitoring: 48 h breathing simulator and human proof-of-concept

Continuous respiratory rate monitoring is essential for early detection of clinical deterioration, but conventional methods like capnography are often impractical outside high-acuity settings. We developed a low-cost, Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) respiratory rate monitor incorporating a MEMS temperature-humidity sensor (AHT21) and Nordic nRF52840 microcontroller, designed to attach externally to a standard oxygen mask. The device detects breaths using rapid, cyclic changes in exhaled temperature and humidity via a slope-based time-domain algorithm. Bench validation over 48 h using a breathing simulator (5–60 breaths min−1, tidal volume 300 ml, 34 °C, 95%–100% RH) demonstrated 96.4% overall breath detection accuracy and strong correlation with programmed rates (r = 0.996, P < 0.0001). Sensor saturation occurred at high respiratory rates (60 breaths min−1), and high ambient humidity levels (90% RH) both of which reduced measurement accuracy. Human testing in three healthy adults showed strong agreement with capnography (mean bias 0.44 breaths min−1; 95% limits of agreement –1.86 to 2.75), with minor under-detection at the highest rate (50 breaths min−1). The device operated reliably across oxygen flow rates of 4–15 l min−1, with reduced performance at 0–2 l min−1 due to saturation of the sensor. These results demonstrate that BLE-enabled MEMS thermohygrometric sensors can accurately monitor respiratory rate under controlled conditions while highlighting operational limits due to sensor saturation. This study extends prior work on humidity-based respiratory monitoring and illustrates the potential for low-cost, portable respiratory rate devices suitable for low-acuity or resource-limited clinical settings.