Making Hybrid War Teachable and Learnable: Combining Artificial Intelligence and Virtual Reality in Military Education

This article explores how the combination of artificial intelligence (AI) and virtual reality (VR) within a single learning design may support military master’s students understanding of hybrid war. Drawing on threshold concepts, adult learning theory, immersive VR learning, and AI literacy, it examines a prototype application integrating a language model with a map-based virtual environment. The large language model is operationalized as an avatar with which students can discuss hybrid threats in a fictitious European context. We study how students engage with the tool as part of a red-teaming exercise. Notwithstanding issues affecting functional interaction, students demonstrate strong motivation and optimism for the use of technology. We find that the combination of AI and VR offers potential in the pedagogical context if the design acknowledges the specific strengths of each technology – AI as a responsive “guide on the side” and VR enhancing visualization and the student’s agency.