Beyond hypertrophy: a network physiology perspective on the cardio-neuromuscular trade-off in elite soccer

Introduction Conventional models treat cardiovascular and neuromuscular adaptations as independent, which can hide interference between endurance and power. We investigated whether cardiac remodeling is associated with peak explosive power when adaptation is considered as an integrated system.

Methods Nineteen male Super League soccer players completed two-dimensional echocardiography to quantify left ventricular mass index (LVMI) and performed a fifteen-repetition vertical jump test. We adjusted variables for body size and training years, then estimated a partial-correlation network with a Gaussian graphical model and ran sensitivity and subgroup checks.

Results The developed network was sparse and stable. A selective inverse association linked LVMI with maximal jump height (partial correlation -0.41), supported by a complementary Bayesian analysis (Bayes factor 5.70). Neuromuscular variables formed a tight positive cluster, and LVMI did not show negative coupling with other jump metrics, indicating a specific rather than global trade-off.

Discussion In elite players, a cardiac phenotype consistent with endurance support coincided with constrained peak explosive output when the system was analyzed as a whole. An interdependent network view clarifies interference patterns and points to targeted monitoring and periodization strategies for high-performance sport.