Infestation rate of bovid short nose lice (Haematopinus tuberculatus) among different breeds of buffaloes and associated risk factors in rural farming of Pakistan.

A short-nosed louse, Haematopinus tuberculatus, infestation among different breeds of buffaloes in rural farming systems poses a potential threat to animals' health and milk production. A cross-sectional study was conducted to estimate the infestation rate of H. tuberculatus across different breeds of buffaloes and to identify potential associated risk factors by examining 1200 animals during surveys of 150 rural farms in Sialkot, Pakistan. Among 1200 sampled animals, a high overall infestation rate of 78.8% was observed. The Kundhi breed exhibited the highest infestation rate (∼85%), followed by the mixed breed (∼80%) and other indigenous breeds, including Nili-Ravi and Azakheli, ranging from 77 to 80%. Kernel density analysis revealed that lice burden followed a right-skewed distribution across all breeds, except Nili-Ravi, which showed broader and heavier lice distribution per 10 cm2/buffalo. Seasonal variation significantly affected infestation dynamics; winter had the highest prevalence (86.6%) and summer the lowest (67.4%). Risk factor analysis revealed that poor bedding, unhygienic practices, and contact with other lice-infested herds or domestic pets significantly increased the risk of H. tuberculatus infestation. Buffaloes with poor hygiene and bedding conditions showed >85% infestation rates, whereas animals with excellent bedding and hygienic practices showed 31.6% infestation prevalence. In buffaloes aged 0-2 years and 8-12 years, as well as in animals with poor body condition scores (BCS1: 89.35%), compared to healthier animals (BCS5: 58.21%). A strong positive correlation (r = 0.97) was observed between lice counts and egg production across all breeds, confirming lice density as a reliable proxy for reproductive outcome. Multivariate logistic regression analysis identified contact with other herds (OR = 2.697, p < 0.001), poor bedding (OR = 3.120, p < 0.001), poor hygiene (OR = 1.856, p < 0.001), and contact with pets (OR = 2.064, p < 0.001) as the most significant predictors of H. tuberculatus infestation risk. In contrast, breed was not a significant predictor in the adjusted regression model (p = 0.449), indicating that observed crude breed-specific differences were primarily attributable to variations in management practices and environmental factors rather than inherent breed susceptibility. Conversely, better body and bedding conditions, as well as hygiene practices, and the summer season provided protective effects. In conclusion, the overall results underscore the importance of improving animal husbandry, housing hygiene, and minimizing inter-herd contact to reduce ectoparasite burdens. The non-significant breed effect in multivariate analysis suggests that targeted interventions focusing on management practices would be more effective than breed-control strategies.