Topographic drivers of anthropization in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

Anthropization is a major driver of environmental change in tropical forests and is influenced by non-random factors, including topographic constraints. The Brazilian Atlantic Forest (BAF) is a highly fragmented biodiversity hotspot facing intense anthropogenic pressure. Here, we evaluated how elevation and slope mediate anthropization patterns across the BAF ecoregions. We quantified overall anthropized land (mostly farming and, secondarily, urban), slope, and elevation within a 100-km² hexagonal grid. A generalized least squares (GLS) model indicated that overall anthropization was driven by slope and elevation, without interaction with ecoregions. Anthropization (65% of the BAF) decreased with increasing slope and elevation, with slope having a 2.7-times stronger and less variable effect than elevation. Farming, responsible for 97% of all anthropized areas, followed the overall pattern. Urban land-use was driven by a slope × ecoregion interaction, with no detectable effect of elevation. Protected areas were disproportionately concentrated in steeper terrain, which also favors natural regeneration. In contrast, anthropization is most intense in flatter, low-and moderate-elevation regions, driven primarily by farming expansion. This mismatch reveals a persistent topographic bias: protected areas tend to safeguard lands of low farming suitability, while leaving the most pressured landscapes underrepresented and with ecosystem services most threatened. Addressing this imbalance is essential for promoting more effective and equitable conservation strategies in the BAF.