Unravelling lead-induced toxicity in mammals: the role of oxidative stress and apoptosis and their modulation by emerging therapeutic strategies

This review integrates the current understanding of the mechanistic pathways involved in lead-induced toxicity, with a specific focus on oxidative stress and apoptosis, and discusses emerging strategies for prevention and therapy, highlighting the protective effects of natural phytochemicals and antioxidant-based interventions that may alleviate cellular and tissue damage associated with lead exposure.