Plant-Based Exosomes: Insights and Therapeutic Applications.

Exosomes, a type of extracellular vesicle (EV), have received much attention in recent years for their potential in drug delivery systems and therapeutic applications. These nano-sized vesicles, secreted by various plant and animal species, serve as natural carriers of bioactive compounds, including proteins, lipids, and RNA, facilitating intercellular communication between tissue and cells and influencing physiological processes. Stahl and group discovered exosomes from maturing mammalian reticulocytes (immature red blood cells) in 1983, followed by Johnstone and colleagues in 1987, who named them exosomes. Animal-derived exosomes are a popular choice for small-molecule drug delivery due to their biocompatibility and homing properties in various domains, including biology and medicine. After animal-derived exosomes, researchers focused on plant-based exosomes and found several good sources of exosomes from different fruits, vegetables, leaves, and other parts of plants that have different effects like anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidants, and so on. Plant-derived exosomes are also used as carriers for different drugs to treat disease. This review examines the biological component, biogenesis of plant exosomes, their sources, and the methodologies employed for their isolation and purification. We also explore the evaluation techniques for characterizing their biological components, such as proteins and lipids. Furthermore, we discuss the applications of plant-derived exosomes in drug delivery, highlighting their application in different disorders with some research references, including biocompatibility, stability, and targeted delivery. Additionally, this review also addresses the challenges associated with plant-based exosomes in different stages of research including isolation and purification, standardization, optimization, drug loading, and so on. The goal of this in-depth review is to provide insight into the current status of research on exosomes derived from plants and the ways that they could advance in drug delivery systems.