Shifting engagement: Education lending by the World Bank and ADB in China (1980s–2020 s)

As of 2025, the World Bank (WB) and the Asian Development Bank (ADB), two major international monetary institutions, have engaged in China for over forty years. Both have financed more than thirty education initiatives (ADB = 36, WB = 40), during which China transformed from a low-income borrower to a leading shareholder and global political actor. This article analyzes how the two IOs’ educational engagement in China evolved over time, using a structured, focused comparison of project frequency, themes, scale, and geographic coverage. Drawing on a rationalist-constructivist framework and based on 98 IO documents and 12 Chinese policy texts, this study argues that this evolving engagement reflects the interplay of China’s developmental trajectory, IO organizational cultures, and the preferences of influential member states. Rather than diverging sharply in commitment, the two banks adapted their delivery modes and engagement styles in response to China’s changing position and demands. This study contributes to understanding how IOs sustain cooperation with rising powers and highlights the operational flexibility of IOs under conditions of geopolitical and institutional transition. • IO strategies evolved with China’s development and geopolitical rise • ADB deepened TVET support as China sought small-scale regional projects • The World Bank shifted to policy advice as China declined lending for education • Institutional culture shaped how IOs adapted to China’s changing priorities • China’s shift from borrower to funder reframed IO–China engagement dynamics