Enhancing learning of nanoscale phenomena: the role of agent-based models and embodied reasoning

Understanding nanoscale phenomena poses significant challenges for students because it requires reasoning about emergent behaviours that are invisible and highly abstract. Agent-based models (ABMs) can function as embodied learning environments, enabling students to manipulate individual agents and observe system-level outcomes while engag - ing embodied processes such as perspective taking, causal inference, and motor-supported thinking. In this study, two treatment conditions were developed: (a) working with ABMs and (b) watching visualization videos. The aim was to investigate whether ABMs are asso- ciated with greater engagement in embodied reasoning strategies than videos, and whether such engagement is associated with conceptual understanding in nanoscience education. Twenty-seven undergraduate students were assigned to one of the two conditions, and their conceptual understanding was assessed through pre- and post-tests alongside pro - cess data. Results showed that ABM students demonstrated greater gains in explanatory knowledge, knowledge transfer and engaged more frequently in embodied reasoning strat - egies. Beyond nanoscience, the findings illustrate how technology-enhanced instructional designs that leverage embodied processes—such as gesture, spatial transformation, and active manipulation—may support students’ reasoning about complex scientific phenom - ena across STEM domains.