An Electroencephalography (EEG) Study of Cognitive Load and Neural Efficiency During Higher-Order Thinking in Secondary Science Learning

Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) are vital for scientific reasoning and problem-solving, yet many students—particularly in Malaysian secondary schools—struggle to master them. Despite curriculum reforms emphasising HOTS, traditional instruction and assessment practices often fail to stimulate the cognitive processes required for deep learning. This study investigates the neural correlates of HOTS engagement using electroencephalography (EEG) among 45 Form Two students, categorised into high-, moderate-, and low-ability groups based on prior science performance. Students completed two 15-minute HOTS-based tasks: a learning activity and an assessment. EEG data were collected following the international 10–20 system, and spectral analyses focused on theta (4 Hz–8 Hz), alpha (8 Hz–12 Hz), and beta (12 Hz–30 Hz) bands to assess cognitive load and neural efficiency. Results revealed that high-ability students demonstrated elevated alpha and beta power, suggesting efficient processing and sustained engagement. In contrast, low-ability students exhibited increased theta activity, indicating cognitive overload. Assessment tasks elicited stronger beta responses than learning tasks across all groups, reflecting higher cognitive demands. Correlation analyses confirmed a positive relationship between alpha/beta activity and HOTS performance. This study provides empirical support for using EEG to explore learning engagement and cognitive effort in science education. The findings highlight the need for neuroscience-informed teaching strategies that reduce cognitive overload and promote deeper engagement with HOTS content.