Public participation in impact assessment: the state of the art in 2025

Public participation has been central to impact assessment (IA) since its formalization under the U.S. National Environmental Policy Act (1969), yet achieving meaningful participation remains an enduring challenge. Our paper reviews the evolution and current state of public participation in IA globally, drawing on key international conventions (Espoo, Aarhus and Escazú), legislative frameworks and practice-based insights from diverse jurisdictions including Africa, Latin America, Asia and the Global North. In achieving this, we have identified the state of the art through a SWOT analysis, as requested by the editors of this special issue. Persistent weaknesses – such as limited early engagement, inadequate access to information, unequal power relations and accelerating decision timelines – continue to undermine participation quality. In response, the paper articulates a framework of thirteen elements of meaningful participation, organized across foundational, essential and contextual domains. These elements emphasize transparency, learning orientation, deliberative approaches and early and ongoing engagement as critical to legitimacy and effectiveness. The analysis highlights growing opportunities for innovation through digital tools, co-design processes and Indigenous-led approaches, while warning of threats posed by political resistance and procedural streamlining. We conclude that achieving truly meaningful public participation requires embedding rights-based, context-sensitive and learning-oriented practices.