Populist style and negative campaigning on Facebook: communication strategies of Spanish political actors in the 2023 general election

In recent decades, the rise of populism across Europe has been marked by its ef - fective use of the digital environment to disseminate messages without boundaries or restrictions. This strategy, which has often proven electorally successful, has led non-populist political actors to adopt similar communicative approaches. This study analyzes the use of populist style and negative campaigning in the digital communication of major Spanish political actors during the 2023 general elections. Through quantitative content analysis, Facebook posts from parties and leaders with the highest parliamentary representation ( n = 911) are examined. The results reveal that the use of typical elements of the populist style—such as appeals to the people, anti-elitism, and outgroup exclusion—extends beyond populist actors. Furthermore, the use of negativity to attack opponents has become a consolidated practice in this election, fostering a communicative dynamic focused more on confrontation than on the discussion of policy proposals. The advance of these two trends poses significant challenges for the health of democracy, as they contribute to deepening polarization and social tensions.