Connecting the Ecological Footprint, Economic Growth, Population Density, and Water Productivity in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan

This study investigates the relationship between ecological footprint, GDP per capita, population density, and water productivity in three South Asian countries—Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan—over the period 1990 to 2022. Using a system of linear equations, the analysis incorporates the Common Correlated Effect Mean Group (CCEMG) model and Panel-Corrected Standard Errors (PCSE) to capture long-run dynamics among the variables. The results indicate that ecological footprints exert a positive and statistically significant effect on environmental outcomes, suggesting that environmental pressures intensify over time. In contrast, GDP per capita is found to reduce environmental degradation in the long run, providing evidence of a potential turning point consistent with the Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis. Water productivity emerges as an important determinant of ecological outcomes, underscoring the role of efficient resource management in reducing environmental stress. Overall, the findings enhance understanding of the interactions between economic, demographic, and environmental factors in South Asia and offer policy insights for mitigating ecological impacts while advancing sustainable development goals.